The Psychology of Sacrifice

A few years ago once to do a psychological project on issues and problems of adult age, I took an opportunity for intimate talks with a group of adults (both male and female); an unusual point attracted my attention. What make adults feel content are not talks about their achievements in the past, which makes them feel sad, depressed and regretful at missing the opportunities and remembers them regretfully. When talking of charitable deeds had done beyond their duty for others, hardships and privations have suffered for helping others or maintenance of a correct opinion benefited everyone, they were feeling dignity, honor, liveliness, and physically and mentally were rather improve. Even some of those who would refuse from using newly popularized Arabic vocabularies, if term sacrificer were attributed to them; they accepted it honorably and pleasurably.

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سه‌شنبه - ۲۹ مهر ۲۰۰۷ / 2007 29 July

Introduction:
A few years ago once to do a psychological project on issues and problems of adult age, I took an opportunity for intimate talks with a group of adults (both male and female); an unusual point attracted my attention. What make adults feel content are not talks about their achievements in the past, which makes them feel sad, depressed and regretful at missing the opportunities and remembers them regretfully. When talking of charitable deeds had done beyond their duty for others, hardships and privations have suffered for helping others or maintenance of a correct opinion benefited everyone, they were feeling dignity, honor, liveliness, and physically and mentally were rather improve.
Even some of those who would refuse from using newly popularized Arabic vocabularies, if term sacrificer were attributed to them; they accepted it honorably and pleasurably. Definition of Sacrifice: Sacrifice literally means to bestow or forgive, in dictionary of Moeen and Dehkhoda's lexicon it means to choose, gives priority to other over oneself, and prefers others interest to one that is the ultimate degree of generosity also gives priority to other over oneself in making benefit and prevents them from loss. Accordingly, devotion and forgiveness in favor of oneself and one's own family or expect a profit in the present or future, do not denote sacrifice generally but it simply is an ordinary dealing. However, sacrifice is a deserved behavior only once it goes beyond this boundary (oneself and one's own family) and cover whole society.
Sacrifice as a behavior: Apart from its different senses, whether it means forgiveness or prefers other interest to one's own, sacrifice undoubtedly refers to a conduct and like all other human behaviors is an inner or outer act for making mental stability within human and achieving true self. Observing concealed subtleties about it, we should begin study the issue from a behavior psychology perspective. Definition of psychology: Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes, so we should study psychology of sacrifice based on how sacrificial behaviors can be perceived. In particular, it should be mentioned that no behavior within man can occur unintentionally and every behavior can be reinforced and punished, and cannot train such a behavior, control or correct it.
Definition of behavior: Behavior consists of mechanisms and inner or outer processes that man in order to satisfying physical and mental needs or maintenance of balance appealing to them. Process of formation of behavior and how it can be affected: Behavior source is surrounding stimuli or inner mechanisms. The American psychologist Abraham Maslow devised a six-level hierarchy of motives that, according to his theory, determine human behavior.
According to Maslow, all humans are born with a drive to achieve their full capacity and to behave in ways that are consistent with their true selves. Maslow theorized that all people are motivated to fulfill a hierarchy of needs. At the bottom of the hierarchy are basic physiological needs, such as hunger, thirst, and sleep. Further up the hierarchy are needs for safety and security, needs for belonging and love, and esteem-related needs for status and achievement. Once these needs are met, Maslow believed, people strive for self-actualization, the ultimate state of personal fulfillment. Moreover, all of these are based on a process that are evaluated within person mind founding on belief, habit, attachment, and enmity (four elements of destiny) of him/her and would occur based on that behavior.
Accordingly, sacrificial behaviors derive from very four elements and mental needs of man. To satisfy which human need sacrificial behavior occurs. We mentioned that every behavior is a reaction to fulfillment of a physiological or mental need. Primary level of motivation is to satisfy basic needs, such as hunger, thirst, and sleep, then fulfillment of safety and security, it is in this stage that fear from punishment and hope for reward can stimulate humans. Further up the hierarchy of Maslow all also have consequences that its effects comes back to person oneself. Group belonging and mutual love give humans pleasure of the approval of others. To meet needs to progress, the approval of others, knowing, and satisfy talent and artistic needs, lead human to a good condition (self-actualization) in which feeling of self-fulfillment, tranquility, hopefulness, and tendency to adore, will reinforce within humans and is favorable to them. Therefore, consequences of all humans' behaviors will return to themselves.
For now, how we can justify sacrificial behaviors in which not only humans turn their back on physiological needs but also sometimes ignore all mental needs? To answer the question, we have to review our opinions of human motivations and Maslow hierarchy of needs. If life cycle stages divide into birth, growth, reproduction, aging and death, we will see plant, animal and humankind shared in these stages. Plant and animal pass the stages only according to organic structure and instinct and only first tow stages of Maslow hierarchy of needs hold true for them i.e. meeting physiological needs then fulfillment of safety for survival.
There is significant difference between plant and animal, since animal behavior is based on instinct toward its family and its babies while plant is short of it. Thus, we can observe that a living creature has approached a superior rank of perfection much as detach from itself and its needs so for this reason, animal life is higher than plant one. Nevertheless, human life has superior stages that affection, perception of beauties and flourishing of aptitudes and reaching a feeling of pleasure called fortunateness are among them. Consequently, different aspect of human life will guide us to answer the question in hand: humans when mentally achieve superior ranks of perfection, they give priority to others interest (material and nonmaterial) over themselves, and this is a behavior called "sacrifice".
Sacrifice is love: given above definition, "sacrifice" belongs to a broad scope of love: one with no regard for ownership or egotism but one belongs to altruistic realm and supernatural world that is beyond the scope of egotism. The love is chosen according to will, intention, decision, cause dynamism, drive, activity, promotion, and self-sacrificing within us, and lastly enhances our motivation and enthusiasm. Sacrifice is a kind of love that creates this inspiration within us: "I'm who I could be" since I have gone beyond instinct needs, concupiscence and I have devoted my self-interest to others' and society. Love is the only powerful factor that can cause this process. Sacrifice is virtue: Aristotle states that as a miserable person demands other to give him/her a hand, a happy person also needs other righteousness. Such a behavior that spreads out righteousness among society is a kind of virtue. Virtuous humans despite their innate egotism become compatible with sacrifice and self-sacrifice moral. They donate their properties, assets, capacities; honors even their life, the most important thing for everyone, since they have attained a higher stage in life than ordinary people and so prefer to attain far and superior righteousness than trivial one.
This is connected to their beliefs and attitudes that is the main cause of their sacrificial behaviors. What we can sacrifice? Sacrifice refers to things that firstly belong to us and we lost it due to sacrifice, then is useful and necessary for us and finally devote it to a person in need without any expectation. Given the above definition, three things have sacrifice attribute; time or life, property, happiness and ease.
Science and training since enhance man's knowledge and talent so innately does not consider but spent time on them is regards as sacrifice. if Man ignore humans rights to help some people, not only this act does not mean sacrifice in any way but also even regard as a kind of injustice and law-breaking. Sacrifice of time and life is the most outstanding and highest aspect of human sacrifice since it is impossible to restore or compensate lost time. It is for this reason that martyrdom or sacrifice of "soul" for goal and ideology is considered as the highest degree of human sacrifice and we hold it dear properly. Its importance caused that term "sacrifice" along with martyrdom gets a halo of sanctity; becomes more important than other aspects of sacrifice, and makes them seem less important. Many sacrifices that man justly takes pride in them, against conscious sacrifice of soul for goal or "martyrdom", like a drop in the bucket seems less important and cause shame or disgrace.
However, sacrifice of property is not in the same rank with time or life, but since it also gains through spending of time so its sacrifice is valuable and honorific. Lastly sacrifice of happiness and ease, as a gift for everyone, in fact is share of happiness with those whom may much needed it than us. Role of belief in enhancement of sacrificial behaviors: in field of behavior's stimuli, belief, habit, attachment, and enmity (four elements of destiny) are considered as leading stimuli of behavior and perception of man. Since as mentioned, a living creature instinctively responds a specific behavior to a situation to meet its instinct needs and whatever is favorable to it. Its only human that can behave against instinct, based on moral and ideological principles or attachment, habit, and enmity and actually gives priority to other over oneself. Among four elements of destiny, belief factor not only has a significant importance but also has supremacy over the other factors, and have been proved experimentally that belief factor is the most important stimulus of sacrificial behaviors.
The kinds of belief causing sacrificial behaviors: 1. Faithful and religious beliefs: religion is based on "faith", it means a belief that man has believed in absolutely and considered it sacred. For this reason, we can regard religious faiths as the most powerful factor of sacrificial behaviors. Sacrifices and self-sacrifices that have occurred through history, thanks to religious faiths, denoting power of this inner factor in generating sacrificial behaviors within people. I dare say that many wars in history have occurred out of religion and in order to diffusion of religious thoughts, the more important point is that holy death or martyrdom occurred in wars having religious origin, not only it does not dissuade the other people but also as a stimulus, stir them to engage in battlefields.
Given belief in Resurrection and eternal life after death existing among all religions, this matter typically denotes honorability of martyrdom among people in all religions. The most obvious historical instance of martyrdom or sacrifice is the method was chosen by Hossein ibn Ali (peace be upon him), the second Imam (political leader) of the Shiite in the ideological war with Moawiyah's son, Yazid armies on the 10th day of the Islamic month of Muharram that include all sacrifices that a man can do. He and his friends sacrificed their property, life, peacefulness and security enjoyed in holy city of Mecca, security of family and relatives and exposing them to danger, martyrdom of offspring and kinsfolk before parents' very eyes and other relatives. As we know, child's death while his/her parents is alive is always among the most disastrous deaths and finally sacrifice one's own life in an unequal and unjust war, simply because of being firm in opinion, is the most outstanding example of sacrificial behavior that occurs out of religious faiths.
2. National and patriotic fevers: they are among important factors and powerful stimuli arousing sacrificial behaviors that many examples of it have been experienced throughout history. Iranian-Ottoman war in Chalderan about five hundred years ago and valor that Iranian showed in Iran-Iraq war lasted from 1980 to 1988, are cases of sacrificial behaviors for the sake of national and patriotic fevers. Of course, Shiite religious affections have also been effective on tow mentioned items. Particularly in Shiite religious, sacrifice principle of life for the sake of belief itself is considered an eternal salvation.
3. Political, social and cultural thoughts: we can point at the above data-x-items among the factors provoking sacrificial behaviors. Given being effective and encouraging, these attitudes all must be related or connected, in some way, to either first category (religious beliefs) or second category (National and patriotic fevers). Mohandas Gandhi and Mother Teresa can be referred to among significant figures held the attitudes. They generously had done considerable services to their country, to the poor and had changed their society.
4. Human considerations and intention of philanthropy: humanitarian considerations and desire to benefit humanity are of the finest reasons for sacrificial behaviors that persuaded a schoolchild to give his/her saved money to those have suffered a disaster. It also makes a person give some of one own food and one's children' to a neighbor in need and do sacrifice despite being poor. To give a friend a hand, to help a colleague to solve a problem with him/her, to solve a problem of a helpless person-entangled in bureaucratic rigid rules and regulations- referring to an office without any expectation and appealing to the other colleagues for doing that, are among the most greatest and the most worthiest sacrificial behaviors. Sacrifice not restricted only to donate property, time or bestow one's own abilities but it includes ignoring one's own respect, honor and social prestige simply to help people, this matter is more valuable than any property and calls for bravery, forgiveness and manhood. Hero is a person who feels duty-bound to help people while not forced to do that as well as no one sees one's act.
In a society where there is less control on one's duty, to work conscientiously is a sacrifice based on humanitarian considerations. Therefore, seeking heroic self-sacrifice is not required by sacrifice but we have opportunity to do it at all times. To solve a problem of a helpless person, make someone happy; guide a misguided person all is considered sacrifice, worthwhile and admirable. Distinction between sacrificial morale and anti-selfish pathological behaviors: sometime a person may commit to act against oneself on anti-selfish pathological grounds even though one's action may benefit other people.
Animosity against oneself that is called inner devil is among anti-selfish pathological behaviors. Man suffering from self-animosity abstains from things that is beneficial to and prefers things damaging to one and sometime this anti-selfish behavior may result in benefit of the other people. In addition, love seeking is among psychiatric disorders that one suffering from it feels he/she has to attract affection, approval and satisfaction of other people at any cost. From viewpoint of this type of people, which unfortunately significant number of people in Iran included in, to gain approval and satisfaction of other people is a vital necessary. Thus, they do not refuse to bestow everything they have even their life to achieve this aim. The characteristic that about has much similarity to sacrifice and self-sacrifice morale can be abused by holders of power in such a way they misuse this Achilles' heel and inferiority complex of love seeking people for their bad intentions.
Now, the important point is that how we can recognize distinction between sacrificial, manly high morale and pathological, anti-selfish behaviors such as self-animosity and love seeking. First distinction is relates to being conscious and voluntary of sacrificial morale against being involuntary of nervous behaviors. In the former, man decides consciously to sacrifice while in the latter one is draw into it unconsciously and against one's will, even continues it despite regret and reproaching oneself. Next distinction is personal enthusiasm in which a person strives to behave in favor of other despite one's own discomfort. Sacrificer man regards sacrifice as achieving oneself to perfection, and heartily satisfied and delighted with doing it while a love-seeker person tries to do that simply to gain approval of the other people. As a result, after doing this, man owing to feeling of imposition becomes dissatisfied toward one and enraged toward the addressee while sacrifice creates an enduring and deep satisfaction within man.
As pointed out at the beginning of the paper the most things the adults were honoring to, was their sacrificial behaviors and not the efforts they have made simply to accomplish their interests. The last difference is that since self-sacrifice is voluntary and conscious so it arises reasonably and properly but love seeking since based on prejudice and passing emotions so it almost involves irrationality and immoderation. It is obvious that if we consider will and intention as source of behavior, so having any material intention may result in alteration of that behavior. Therefore, no one consider professional sellers of blood and kidney, whether in the past or the present, as sacrificer, even though made money devote to affairs of family, children's dowry and so on.
Factors that weaken or reinforce sacrificial morale: as we indicated earlier, sacrifice is a behavior but one that meets our mental needs by forgiveness and devotion and causes spiritual development of our character. Like all behaviors, three factors of essence or id, education and training have a role in forming and reinforcing or weakening of sacrificial behavior and to influence it, variation of these variables should be focused on.
Evolution of id, even if it is feasible and possible it is necessary to pass through generations, ages and centuries but education (that principally takes shape within family) and training (either formal or informal) can be emphasized. By researching around Iranian folk traditional customs and beliefs passing down from generation to generation, contradictory morals can be observed that studying them in the discussion about psychology of sacrifice is necessary and considerable a lot. For example, what is undeniable and generally have been acknowledged true by friends and enmities about Iranian is they are the most famous hospitably in the world.
They are also prepared from top to bottom to support and assistance one another in dangerous and critical conditions. This very people in other situations give priority to other's interest over one's own minor interest. A brief glance at conditions of driving in Tehran province will proved this bitter truth and unforgiving nature among people. By scrutinizing official behaviors of our employees, we can see that neither sacrifice nor responsibility and the discharge of duty is so obvious.
Once property or money collects for a good cause, why centers for collecting donations where reporters of mass media stationed on the scene, even if they located in a remote place is welcomed by more number of people and many people try to deliver their donations before media? Why we have few anonymous donors, even those who formally refuse to give their name, but in different ways try to be known. Of course, these objections that typically learned and society atmosphere imposes on man, does not decreases worth of sacrifice of people so much. Nevertheless, we cannot put those people who attempt for the God's sake and those who only think of God's servants, in the same rank.
Therefore individualistic and self-interestedly nature should be considered as factor of weakening of sacrifice morale and factors of attention and appreciation (even though it has a rather ostentatiously aspect) as reinforcing factor of it in our country. Experiences have proved that Iranian for the sake of their religious beliefs, national and patriotic fevers, political, social and cultural beliefs, ready to forgive, sacrifice and even bestow their life without any expectation of appreciation or material intent. However, to help the fellows, firstly people's motivation should be reinforced. Then their sacrificial behavior should be valued also openly be appreciated and the gratitude should be reflected, otherwise under passing sentiments a step is taken to help but their enthusiasm waning rapidly and does not perpetuate. Iranian society hold very dear social value and prestige, and sacrifice will flourish in our country under conditions that be appreciated, encouraged and openly declared, and it is in the circumstances that through glorification of sacrificers and introduction of them, further sacrificers can be emerged. In particular, we see that sacrifice belongs to ethics scope and of characteristics of moral behaviors is they are voluntary and optional also any compulsion, imposition or even in the form of moral circumstances makes them invaluable.
We should notice that sacrifice is a moral advantage or a virtue, not a duty that imposition of it produces a mood of indisposition and disinclination within man. Why sacrifice is important also for one oneself? In the Holy Quran has cited that is there any Reward for Good - other than Good? In addition to narrative deductions based on religious traditions (Hadith) and the other holy books also through simple criteria one can perceives easily that sacrifice is like a limpid brook that purifies and refines the atmosphere of everywhere it currents and philosophically everything in the nature returns to its source. Sea water vapor in the atmosphere condenses into clouds and falls to the Earth. Wind transfers clouds and they, in the form of rain, fall on arid and thirsty plains and make them green, lush and pleasant, then very water flows down streams and rivers and lastly flows into the seas.
From the perspective of psychological knowledge, sacrificial behaviors cause a man to reach higher levels of perfection and create consent within one that not anything else may replace it and reach human to summit of perfection that is desire of everyone. Sacrifice makes human moral strong and reinforces bravery and manliness bases within one. It is for the reason that parents are drawn attention to the fact that children from early years should be accustomed to sacrifice and help fellows lest in later life they will suffer from aloneness and lonesomeness in adulterous houses. Sacrifice is an experience that revives feeling of happiness and being useful within a man and those who have learned to serve others heartily and without any ostentation will perceive the most profound pleasure of life and true achievement.
Besides creating valuable change in life of the other people through sacrifice, creativity and courage, man can also change one's own life and make it fine or pure, also one and one's children live in a good and different condition. In fact, hero is one who creates a significant change in the life condition of other people. Therefore, sacrificers are true heroes in the world and try to help other boldly in the most difficult situations. We should never forget that minor efforts could lead to great consequences. If we look for key of popularity and achievement, it only will found in box of being useful. Since helping fellow creates, sense of being useful within man and above all, it causes self-fulfillment within a person and such a person has most bases for popularity and achievement.
In conclusion, however, it is better that notice to a perspective that is above mores and morality in which sacrificial behavior no longer occur to achieve popularity and success. In this stage, sacrificial behavior goes beyond fear of hell or expectation of paradise, but it occur merely based on righteousness for righteousness. Since expectation of spiritual wage of afterlife is an expectation and considered a kind of wage.